In this anthology of works, the reader is offered an interdisciplinary dialogue under the rubric of a philosophy of medicine. The preparation of this work has been possible thanks to the versatile contributions that the Seminar on Epistemology of Health Sciences (SECS) welcomed in its transversal program: where it was about articulating what we have been calling a philosophy of medicine in concrete and a philosophy of health sciences in general. With the purpose of placing the philosophy of medicine within (...) the set of fields that can be assigned to the health sciences, this anthology is divided into four blocks in which it appears: the thematic horizon of the philosophy of medicine, an analysis exhaustive on the methodological approach in the health sciences, the state of the art on the debates surrounding the definition of the disease and the detailed study of the assumptions of the biomedical model. In this first block: _Filosofía de la medicina: estado del arte_, the task of answering a series of questions that allows delimiting the map of this field of research with respect to others. What makes the philosophy of medicine an autonomous field of research? What is the set of problems that the philosophy of medicine addresses? What subfields currently make up this discipline? The second block that makes up this anthology begins with the study of the epistemology and methodology of health sciences. Atocha Aliseda, Rodrigo Itzamna Fuentes and Fernanda Samaniego will carry out in their works a tentative, but methodologically suggestive task, of highlighting specific cognitive activities for solving problems in clinical terrain. _Sobre la caracterización de enfermedad: disfunción biológica y sobrediagnóstico_ is the title of our third block; where Mariana Salcedo and Adriana Murguía analyze the different debates that have arisen about the concept - so elusive - of illness. The fourth and final block is divided between the works of Marcia Villanueva, David Fajardo-Chica and David Servín Hernández, in which it will meditate on dehumanization in the practice of medicine, suffering at the end of life and the practice clinic in the current biomedical model. (shrink)

The human voice does not deceive. The one who is speaking is inevitably revealed by the singular sound of her voice, no matter “what” she says. We take this fact for granted—for example, every time someone asks, over the telephone, “Who is speaking?” and receives as a reply the familiar utterance, “It’s me.” Starting from the given uniqueness of every voice, Cavarero rereads the history of philosophy through its peculiar evasion of this embodied uniqueness. She shows how this history—along with (...) the fields it comprehends, such as linguistics, musicology, political theory, and studies in orality—might be grasped as the “devocalization of Logos,” as the invariable privileging of semantike over phone, mind over body. Female figures—from the Sirens to the Muses, from Echo to opera singers—provide a crucial counterhistory, one in which the embodied voice triumphs over the immaterial semantic. Reconstructing this counterhistory, Cavarero proposes a “politics of the voice” wherein the ancient bond between Logos and politics is reconfigured, and wherein what matters is not the communicative content of a given discourse, but rather who is speaking. (shrink)

El propósito de este trabajo es ofrecer un análisis de la discusión sobre el canibalismo y los sacrificios humanos de los indígenas en el contexto de la controversia entre Las Casas y Sepúlveda. Dicho análisis es muy relevante, en tanto que permite observar las raíces más remotas del actual derecho de intervención y de la doctrina de los derechos humanos. Para tal fin, el autor empieza con una rápida descripción de los motivos que condujeron a la disputa de Valladolid, al (...) tiempo que enuncia los cuatro puntos en discusión. En segundo lugar, realiza una descripción más o menos detallada del cuarto argumento de la controversia, que trata en concreto sobre los sacrificios humanos y el canibalismo indígena. Y concluye mostrando que, al justificar estas prácticas, Las Casas busca ante todo la integración de las culturas indígenas en el marco general del conocimiento histórico universal. (shrink)

Rome and Carthage had established peaceful diplomatic relations before 300 b.c. — as early as the close of the sixth century according to Polybius, whose dating there no longer seems good cause to doubt. A second treaty was struck probably in 348. Both dealt essentially with traders' and travellers' obligations and entitlements, so any military or political terms sprang from that context. In both, the Carthaginians agreed to hand over any independent town they captured in Latium. In the first treaty (...) they were not to establish a fort in Latium either; in the second, the Romans were not to found a city in Carthaginian Africa, Spain or Sardinia. But independent military considerations are the stuff of a third treaty concluded during Rome's war with Pyrrhus. Rome and Carthage now pledged each other military aid in certain circumstances, as we shall see. And ‘geopolitical’ concerns of a very broad kind imbued a treaty which was reported by the third-century historian Philinus of Agrigentum. By this, he stated, ‘the Romans must keep out of the whole of Sicily, the Carthaginians out of Italy’ . This is Polybius' citation of Philinus' allegation; Polybius himself then roundly rejects the very existence of such a pact and declares himself at a loss to understand how his predecessor could record it, but modern scholarship is no longer all that ready to accept his view. A strong majority of historians prefer to follow the Agrigentine, and many see 306 b.c. as the likely year for the agreement because Livy records a ‘renewal’ then of a foedus with Carthage. (shrink)

_Relating Narratives_ is a major new work by the philosopher and feminist thinker Adriana Cavarero. First published in Italian to widespread acclaim, _Relating Narratives_ is a fascinating and challenging new account of the relationship between selfhood and narration. Drawing a diverse array of thinkers from both the philosophical and the literary tradition, from Sophocles and Homer to Hannah Arendt, Karen Blixen, Walter Benjamin and Borges, Adriana Cadarero's theory of the `narratable self' shows how narrative models in philosophy and (...) literature can open new ways of thinking about formation of human identities. By showing how each human being has a unique story that can be told about them, Adriana Cavarero inaugurates an important shift in thinking about subjectivity and identity which relies not upon categorical or discursive norms, but rather seeks to account for `who' each one of us uniquely is. (shrink)

Los textos hipocráticos y su vigencia: elementos para la formación humanística del médico en el siglo XXI Os textos hipocráticos e sua validade: elementos para a formação humanística do médico no século XXI By way of notes, comments are made on the validity of some Hippocratic works from the perspective of the learning and practice of medicine in the first decades of the 21st century, amidst a expanding technical-scientific and computer civilization. The paper highlights the affirmation of perennial truths —valid (...) at all times— extracted from a selection of Hippocratic writings, which express the spirit of classic Greek medicine understood as tekhne iatrike. It was originally conceived as an activity of a rational, human, philanthropic and scientific nature aimed at serving the good of patients, following an ethos and some ethical principles and values of universal range, validity and application. It is proposed that taking in these concepts provides the medicine student with humanity, dignity, moral and intellectual growth, and improves their attitudes and aptitudes, skills and abilities to understand and face multiple existential situations that permeate daily clinical practice. This not only requires professional technical skills, but also humane attributes for better approaching interpersonal relationships with and attitudes towards the patient and their families. These ideas are introduced as a contribution of bioethics, characterized by its humanities-science-technology integration and educational mission of training critical consciences within the techno-scientific civilization, in order to foster respect for and openness towards diverse aspects of reality. Para citar este artículo / To reference this article / Para citar este artigo Gómez-Fajardo CA. Los textos hipocráticos y su vigencia: elementos para la formación humanística del médico en el siglo XXI. Pers Bioet. 2019;23:194-206. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5294/pebi.2019.23.2.3 Recibido: 20/04/2019 Aceptado: 18/07/2019. (shrink)

In this article, Adriana Cavarero and Nidesh Lawtoo resume a dialogue on mimetic inclinations in view of furthering a relational, embodied and affective conception of subjectivity that challenges homo erectus from the immanent perspective of homo mimeticus. If a dominant philosophical tradition tends to restrict mimesis to an illusory representation of reality, Plato was the first to know that mimesis also operates as an affective force, or pathos, that dispossesses the subject. While Plato tended to emphasize the pathological implications (...) of mimesis, Cavarero and Lawtoo agree that both mimesis and inclinations go beyond good and evil and can be put to both pathological and democratic use. Picking up a dialogue started during a walk in New York City, Cavarero and Lawtoo, take their shared interests in Joseph Conrad's relating narratives as an occasion to discuss good and bad mimetic inclinations in contemporary politics and ethics. Joined in conclusion by the Gendered Mimesis team (Willow Verkerk, Isabelle Dahms and Giulia Rignano), topics addressed include new fascism, surging democracy, ethical responsibility for vulnerable others, hypermaternity and public happiness in a precarious world. (shrink)

Relating Narratives is a major new work by the philosopher and feminist thinker Adriana Cavarero. First published in Italian to widespread acclaim, Relating Narratives is a fascinating and challenging new account of the relationship between selfhood and narration. Drawing a diverse array of thinkers from both the philosophical and the literary tradition, from Sophocles and Homer to Hannah Arendt, Karen Blixen, Walter Benjamin and Borges, Adriana Cadarero's theory of the `narratable self' shows how narrative models in philosophy and (...) literature can open new ways of thinking about formation of human identities. By showing how each human being has a unique story that can be told about them, Adriana Cavarero inaugurates an important shift in thinking about subjectivity and identity which relies not upon categorical or discursive norms, but rather seeks to account for `who' each one of us uniquely is. (shrink)

En el artículo se aborda la relación entre vida activa y vida contemplativa en Platón desde la República. Teniendo en cuenta la figura del rey filósofo argumentamos que en Platón no hay oposición alguna entre uno y otro modo de vida, sino que, al contrario, la vida filosófica tal como se presenta en el diálogo debe incluir tanto acción como contemplación. Esta tesis la sostendremos a partir de dos elementos: las características del conocimiento que alcanza el filósofo a través de (...) la contemplación y el necesario descenso que debe llevar a cabo el filósofo una vez ha aprehendido las Ideas. (shrink)

El texto de Oscar Robledo nos transporta hacia un París muy distinto de aquel de las postales, donde convive la miseria del mundo con la opulencia de los “exitosos”. Una ciudad hermosa y brillante, donde polulan también los cuerpos semiproletarizados de los estudiantes latinoamericanos y tantos otros inmigrantes; los mismos que viven en 12 metros cuadrados y que combaten la soledad, el hambre y la precariedad mediante el calor de sus cuerpos y los encuentros sexuales casi frenéticos. Más allá de (...) los lugares comunes y los estereotipos, la descripción de la vida de estos seres insertos en una de las ciudades más ricas del mundo, es una crónica del subdesarrollo en el corazón del país que inventó el lujo. Es la historia de tantos soñadores ávidos de una cultura que apenas los recibe con la indiferencia de quien se siente parte de una civilización “superior”. (shrink)

This essay answers two questions that continue to drive debate in moral and legal philosophy; namely, ‘Is a risk of harm a wrong?’ and ‘Is a risk of harm a harm?’. The essay’s central claim is that to risk harm can be both to wrong and to harm. This stands in contrast to the respective positions of Heidi Hurd and Stephen Perry, whose views represent prominent extremes in this debate about risks. The essay shows that there is at least one (...) category of risks – intentional impositions of risk on unconsenting agents – which can be both wrongful and harmful. The wrongfulness of these risks can be established when, on the balance of reasons, one ought not to impose them. The harmfulness of these risks can be established when the risks are shown to set back legitimate interests. In those cases where risks constitute a denial of the moral status of agents, risks set back agents’ interest in dignity. In these ways, the essay shows that there are instances when a risk can constitute both a wrong and a harm. (shrink)

En este artículo se plantea que la noción filosófica de Emmanuel Levinas la idea de Dios ofrece una respuesta a la discusión sobre la relación entre Levinas y el judaísmo. Para ello se presentan algunos planteamientos de comentadores e intérpretes, se exponen datos biográficos del autor y de sus lecturas formativas —bíblicas, literarias y filosóficas—, y se alude a algunos términos filosóficos que clarifican la ética como filosofía primera, para indicar la idea de Dios como trascendencia que protege la separación (...) entre el Mismo y el Otro. (shrink)

IntroductionCardiology is characterized by its state-of-the-art biomedical technology and the predominance of Evidence-Based Medicine. This predominance makes it difficult for healthcare professionals to deal with the ethical dilemmas that emerge in this subspecialty. This paper is a first endeavor to empirically investigate the axiological foundations of the healthcare professionals in a cardiology hospital. Our pilot study selected, as the target population, cardiology personnel not only because of their difficult ethical deliberations but also because of the stringent conditions in which they (...) have to make them. Therefore, there is an urgent need to reconsider clinical ethics and Value-Based Medicine. This study proposes a qualitative analysis of the values and the virtues of healthcare professionals in a cardiology hospital in order to establish how the former impact upon the medical and ethical decisions made by the latter.ResultsWe point out the need for strengthening the roles of healthcare personnel as educators and guidance counselors in order to meet the ends of medicine, as well as the need for an ethical discernment that is compatible with our results, namely, that the ethical values developed by healthcare professionals stem from their life history as well as their professional education.ConclusionWe establish the kind of actions, communication skills and empathy that are required to build a stronger patient-healthcare professional relationship, which at the same time improves prognosis, treatment efficiency and therapeutic adhesion. (shrink)

In this chapter we will try to show how the introduction of Darwinian evolutionary theory transformed metaphysics, and in particular, the philosophical understanding of the temporality of being. In the interests of brevity, we will focus on two particularly significant aspects of the impact of Darwinism on Latin America. We will consider, first, how the new evolutionary thought transformed past notions of temporality. Second, we will discuss the ways in which the ideas of regression and extinction, viewed as essential components (...) of the evolutionary process, problematized the nature of progress and civilization. We trace these developments in the work of three central figures of Latin American thought: José Martí, José Rodó, and Euclides da Cunha. All three of these men were extraordinarily versatile thinkers, and each has been the subject of voluminous secondary literature. But the first two, unlike some other influential figures—such as, famously, Domingo Sarmiento of Argentina—were hardly self-professed Darwinians. Still, we have chosen to discuss them because of this last fact, and not despite it. As for da Cunha, though he accepted the basic canons of the new evolutionary theory, he remained ambivalent about its application. All three struggled, each in his own way, to come to terms with the Darwinian legacy, and each found his thinking profoundly shaped by this struggle; they offer us three different, unique perspectives on the impact of Darwinism. The magnitude of the new evolutionism can only be understood if we consider the wide range of discussion it triggered in consequence of its profound philosophical impact. (shrink)

The text presents a short account of the history of the philosophically relevant key concepts of feminist theory – sex and gender. Those concepts were crucial in the process of the constitution of gender studies as well as for the manouvering of feminist practice. On the other hand, however, as Judith Butler demonstrates exceptionally, these concepts are also the points of a fruitful debate, opening the possibility for resignification, different ways of thinking about the fundamental assumptions of feminist theory. While (...) it leaves feminist theory devoid of a firm,fixed position, ensuing instability, it offers a specific, subversive potential for a theory in general, while expanding the domains of inclusiveness in practice. (shrink)

Insistiranje na tome da ljudska prava i prava coveka nisu jedno i isto, kako bi se u prvi mah moglo zakljuciti na temelju pojma "covek" koji se javlja u oba naziva, predstavlja okosnicu ovog rada. Razvijanjem ovog motiva u tekstu nastojim da pokazem sledece: da je pojam "covek", iako po definiciji inkluzivan i u apstraktnom smislu nediskriminativan, u vreme kada i prakticki ulazi u upotrebu zapravo zasnovan na precutnom iskljucivanju i da je samo na temelju tog iskljucivanja mogao da oznacava (...) "slobodne i jednake". Iako paralelni ili istovremeni nastanak i implementacija prava coveka i nacionalnih prava isprva deluje protivrecno, nastojim da pokazem da je taj paradoks samo prividan, buduci da je sam pojam coveka ogranicen i iskljucujuci, te utoliko kompatibilan s ekskluzivnoscu koja je nuzni uslov pojma nacije. Posledice nacionalizama - svetski ratovi, pre svega - iznele su na videlo nemogucnost opstanka koncepcije slobode i jednakosti zasnovane na bratstvu ljudi, i nemogucnost demokratije koja je samo parcijalna iako hini univerzalnost. Kodifikovanje univerzalnih ljudskih prava predstavlja odgovor na ovu unutrasnju diskrepanciju u jednakoj meri u kojoj je reakcija na razornost svih tipova nacionalizama. Pojam zivota, koji u tekstu obrazlazem, korespondira temeljnom zahtevu na pravo na zivot, koje vise ne pripada "coveku", vec svakome/svakoj. (shrink)

Disagreeing with Jerrold Levinson's claim that being conscious of broad-span musical form is not essential to understanding music, I will argue that our awareness of musical architecture is significant to achieve comprehension. I will show that the experiential model is not incompatible with the analytic model. My main goal is to show that these two models can be reconciled through the identification of a broader notion of understanding. After accomplishing this reconciliation by means of my new conception, I will close (...) the paper by discussing some reasons to accept an enhancing notion of musical understanding that includes levels and degrees of understanding. /// En desacuerdo con la afirmación de Jerrold Levinson: que ser consciente de la forma musical a gran escala no es esencial para comprender la música, sostendré que nuestra conciencia de la estructura musical es significante para alcanzar comprensión. Mostraré que el modelo experiencial no es incompatible con el modelo analítico y que ambos pueden ser reconciliados mediante una noción de comprensión más amplia. Después de llevar a cabo está reconciliación mediante la nueva concepción que propongo, concluiré discutiendo algunas razones para aceptar una noción de comprensión musical enriquecida que incluye niveles y grados de comprensión. (shrink)

A central question in human development is how young children gain knowledge so fast. We propose that analogical generalization drives much of this early learning and allows children to generate new abstractions from experience. In this paper, we review evidence for analogical generalization in both children and adults. We discuss how analogical processes interact with the child's changing knowledge base to predict the course of learning, from conservative to domain-general understanding. This line of research leads to challenges to existing assumptions (...) about learning. It shows that it is not enough to consider the distribution of examples given to learners; one must consider the processes learners are applying; contrary to the general assumption, maximizing variability is not always the best route for maximizing generalization and transfer. (shrink)

Despite the expansion of the regulatory state, we continue to witness widespread unethical practices across society. This paper addresses these challenges of ethical failure, misalignment, and dissonance by developing a conceptual framework that provides an explicit basis for understanding virtuousness and the common good directed toward the goal of eudaimonia or human flourishing. While much of the literature on virtuousness has focused on the organization, this paper uses a more comprehensive understanding that also incorporates the agent and the economy examined (...) through their relational order. The common good provides direction for guiding behavior of all the various stakeholders and the context for understanding virtuousness, while it is through virtuousness that the common good is effectively realized. Virtuousness and the common good are therefore in effect ‘two sides of the same coin.’ This paper develops a virtuousness–common good conceptual framework which explores the basis for harmonizing the goals of the individual, organization, and the economy. (shrink)

In lieu of an abstract, here is a brief excerpt of the content:“A Child Has Been Born unto Us”Arendt on BirthAdriana CavareroTranslated by Silvia Guslandi and Cosette BruhnsIn The Human Condition, at the end of the dense chapter on action, Hannah Arendt reiterates that action, that is, the political faculty for excellence, “is ontologically rooted” in the fact of natality, “like an ever-present reminder that men, though they must die, are not born in order to die but in order to (...) begin” (Arendt 1998, 246).1 To reinforce this argument, Arendt compares action to miracles, and makes an interesting and, as we will see, somewhat perplexing reference to the Bible:[The miracle] is, in other words, the birth of new men and the new beginning, the action they are capable of by virtue of being born. Only the full experience of this capacity can bestow upon human affairs faith and hope, those two essential characteristics of human existence which Greek antiquity ignored altogether.…It is this faith in and hope for the world that found perhaps its most glorious and most succinct expression in the few words with which the Gospels announced their “glad tidings”: “A child has been born unto us.”(HC, 247)The citation is suggestive, but incorrect. In the Gospels, which do announce with true joy the birth of the child, the phrase as it is quoted here does not exist. It appears instead in Isaiah (9:6), translated into English both as “For to us a child is borne,” and, in the version of the King James Bible from which Arendt is plausibly drawing, as “For unto us a child is born.” The error, if indeed it is an error, is thus twofold (see Young-Ah Gottlieb 2003, 136ff.), since [End Page 12] both the passage referenced and the words cited are incorrect. That Arendt frequently cites from memory, and that the citations tend to be bibliographically incorrect, is known to her interpreters, but in this case the error ends up being quite significant. As is well known, the prophetic text carries a strong Messianic burden, and such a burden would trouble significantly the thesis that Arendt is here illustrating; the Gospels’ message creates instead fewer obstacles to her strategy of framing the meaning of birth within the mundane horizon that in her vocabulary takes the names of “world” or “worldliness.” Since “‘to live’ and to ‘be among men’” mean the same thing (HC, 7), the child, every newborn, that is, every human being that makes its entrance in the world, is not, according to the Arendtian vision, born to us, coming from elsewhere, but appears among us here. The scenario of birth, like that of action, whatever be the holy text that mentions or exemplarily validates them, is, for Arendt, a radically mundane scenario that does not call into question any transcendence or religious instance of salvation.Jewish, secular, and classically trained in Greek and Latin, Arendt, who had little familiarity with the Jewish language and tradition, met Christian thought primarily through Saint Augustine, to whom she dedicated her doctoral thesis (Der Liebesbegriff bei Augustin, published in Berlin in 1929 and then in English in 1996 as Love and Saint Augustine), and who remained a constant point of reference throughout her work. A phrase from Augustine—initium ut esset homo creatus est—present in the thesis, appears, in fact, in Arendt’s later texts, including The Human Condition, indeed with obsessive repetitiveness in reference to the category of birth.2 In her monumental work The Origins of Totalitarianism, published in 1951, a full seven years prior to The Human Condition, Arendt already writes: “Beginning, before it becomes a historical event, is the supreme capacity of man; politically, it is identical with man’s freedom. Initium ut esset homo creatus est, ‘that a beginning be made, man was created’, said Augustine. This beginning is guaranteed by each new birth; it is indeed every man” (Arendt 1973, 479). On the philosophically anomalous theme of birth, the contributions of the Christian tradition that Arendt does appreciate are predominantly two: the “glad tidings” that herald the coming of the child, and Augustine’s comments on the narrative of Creation.Natality, Birth, and the Human Condition of... (shrink)

El manuscrito 2461 de la Biblioteca General de Rabat conserva un tercer zi)3 del astrónomo Muhammad ibn al-Raqqám al-Andalusí (m. 1315): al-Ziy al-Mustawfa. Los cánones (capitulo 18) y la tabla del movimiento del apogeo de al-Mustawfa están relacionados con el trabajo de Ibm Isháq al-Túnisí (1193-1222), quien compiló, probablemente, un conjunto de tablas carentes de cánones. Ibn al-Raqqám conocía bien el ziy de Ibn Isháq del que realizó dos recensiones conocidas hasta ahora: al-Ziy al- amil y al-Ziy al-Qawim. En al-Mustawfó, (...) tercera recensión de la misma obra, Ibn al-Raqqám aclara cuál era la opinión de Ibn Isl3áq sobre el movimiento de los apogeos planetarios y la división que existía, a este respecto, entre los astrónomos de la escuela andaluso-magrebí. (shrink)

El tasyīr o «prorrogación» es un procedimiento astrológico por el que se hace avanzar de forma imaginaria un indicador para conocer las influencias celestes. El tasyīr fue una de las herramientas fundamentales del astrólogo en el levantamiento de un horóscopo. Este artículo analiza la información que contiene el capítulo “Sobre el tasyīr” de la obra al-Bāri‘ de Ibn Abī-l-Riŷāl : los métodos, las técnicas y los recursos que utilizaba. Su estudio nos muestra las vías por las que la ciencia se (...) transmitía, el modo en el que el astrólogo elaboraba su obra, la importancia del al-Bāri‘ como introductor en el Magreb y en la Europa medieval de fuentes y conocimientos nuevos importados de Oriente y la vigencia de su astrología hasta el siglo XV. El cotejo del capítulo mencionado con su traducción castellana nos da pruebas de la forma de trabajar de los traductores de Alfonso X. (shrink)

Cardiology is characterized by its state-of-the-art biomedical technology and the predominance of Evidence-Based Medicine. This predominance makes it difficult for healthcare professionals to deal with the ethical dilemmas that emerge in this subspecialty. This paper is a first endeavor to empirically investigate the axiological foundations of the healthcare professionals in a cardiology hospital. Our pilot study selected, as the target population, cardiology personnel not only because of their difficult ethical deliberations but also because of the stringent conditions in which they (...) have to make them. Therefore, there is an urgent need to reconsider clinical ethics and Value-Based Medicine. This study proposes a qualitative analysis of the values and the virtues of healthcare professionals in a cardiology hospital in order to establish how the former impact upon the medical and ethical decisions made by the latter. (shrink)

El artículo va en contra de la apreciación del escepticismo filosófico según la cual éste posee algún significado en cuanto supone el realismo metafísico y defiende pretensiones universales. Una tal visión del escepticismo filosófico es considerada aquí, más bien, como banal. Contra esta interpretación del escepticismo filosófico, se desea mostrar que éste puede ser concebido como una posición filosófica de interés aun cuando no infiera la imposibilidad del saber a partir del carácter inverificable del realismo, o aun cuando no defienda (...) actitudes destructivas con pretendido valor imiversal. El artículo quiere comprender los motivos escépticos relativistas e indicar su valor en cuanto ellos cuestionan el status de la filosofia como teoría de segtmdo orden, o meta-teoría. (shrink)